Differences between Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Chromosomes

Prokaryotes Chromosomes

1) It is a circular, double stranded DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) which can be found in a nucleoid.
2) It has a smaller size as compared to eukaryotic chromosomes. (DNA content)
3) It has one origin of replication
4) There is an absence of telomeres, because it is circular.
5) There is an absence of a centromere as it does not divide by mitosis, but binary fission.
6) Lower amount of intergenic regions. (Does not contain introns, hence few regulatory sequences needed)
7) Higher gene density.
8) Genes are arranged in operons (multiple genes under control of the same promoter).
9) Usually only 1 chromosome.
10) It contains extrachromosomal DNA. (Circular DNA forms plasmids.)
11) Haploid (Having a single set of unpaired chromosomes).
12) Chromosomes wound around basic proteins, similar to histones.
13) High degree of compaction, folding into looped domains.
14) DNA is transcribed into mRNA and used immediately in translation.
15) There is no compartmentalization of transcription and translation process during protein synthesis.

Eukaryotes Chromosomes

1) It is a linear, double stranded DNA which can be found in a membrane-bound nucleus.
2) It is a larger as compared to prokaryotes. (DNA content)
3) There are multiple origins of replications.
4) There is the presence of telomere to protect the chromosomal ends.
5) There is the presence of centromere to ensure equal division of genetic material during mitosis.
6) Higher amount of intergenic regions. (Contains introns, hence more regulatory sequences.)
7) Lower gene density.
8) Each gene has its own promoter.
9) It has multiple chromosomes.
10) There are not extra chromosomes DNA with nucleus. (No plasmids are formed)
11) Can exist as haploid, diploid, or polyploid.
12) The chromosomes wound around histone proteins.
13) Very high degree of compaction, folding into chromatin fibers, looping and coiling and eventual compaction into fully condensed chromosomes.
14) After transcription, pre-mRNA has to be processed and intron splicing occurs before the mRNA is used in translation.
15) There is compartmentalizaiton in the cell which enables transcription to occur in the nucleus and translation to occur outside the nucleus.

WOW... It is freaking 15 marks ONLY, if i am able to produce these details.
I hope this would be one of our ESSAY question in our promotional examination.

Promo Examination Day 4

Yays!

Total relieve after having my Math Paper.
Sat there for almost 3 hours. Time really flies.

Really cannot do all questions in time...
If given me more time, I can finish and score good marks lor...

But anyway, today is the day I felt most satisfied with my exam performance.

I hope Biology would be the best! My Bio Please Own my Chem and Econs. JIAYOU....

=)

Jonathan called me yesterday! Long time never heard his voice! Cool, going to meet them on this Sunday.!

Promo Examination Day 3

Interested in what happened today?

The paper was relatively easy.
But, no time to finish the paper.

I will just hope for the best.

Jiayou for BIO and MATHS.

Promo Examination Day 2

Economics... DRQ was quite do-able, but the essay was a bit too much to write.
I can't plan the essay.
I found out a weakness, I could not think under examination conditions... What should I do???

Maybe it involves writing many stuff...

I am much confident in completing my chemistry paper and math paper next monday.

FOR THESE TWO PAPERS... I HOPE AND WILL GET AN A.

otherwise, say bye bye to my room.

"Eddy is full of confidence and shall mug now.!"

Sources of Market Failure

Market failure occurs when free markets, without government intervention, fails to deliver an efficient allocation of resources, to produce goods or services. Hence, societal welfare is not maximized. Due to the ### industry being dominated by a few large firms, market failure may arise from imperfect competition. Moreover, significant external benefits/costs generated from the consumption/production of ### may also lead to market failure. Another sources of market failure includes failure to provide public goods and imperfect information of the producers/consumers.

(1) Imperfect Competition

One source of market failure is imperfect competition. The ### industry is often dominated by a few large firms. For example, in Singapore, there are a few major companies, such as @@@ and $$$. Due to their market power and the profit maximizing behavior of the firms, there will be allocative inefficiencies in the provision of ###, thereby resulting in market failure.



As shown in the diagram above, the profit maximizing output level is at Q1 where MC=MR and the corresponding price would be at P1. However, at output Q1, the price is greater than the marginal cost. Thus, this implies that the value society puts on the last unit of ### produced is greater than the additional cost to society. Therefore, societal welfare can be increased by lowering the price and increasing the output. Hence, allocative inefficiency is achieved as it is possible to make someone better off without making someone else worse off. The existence of monopoly power of leads to the underproduction of ### and the resultant welfare loss would be the shaded area. Societal welfare can be maximized by producing at output Q2 and charging price P2.

(2) Positive externality

Another source of market failure is positive externality, benefits that are gained by the third party from the consumption/production of ### but not the producer of consumer themselves. For example, (@@@@@@@@##@##@##)



As shown in the diagram above , the positive externalities cause the social marginal benefit to be higher than the private marginal benefit. However, the market equilibrium is at which output, Q1 where PMB=PMC, as the external benefit is unpriced. But the socially efficient consumption level should be where SMB=SMC at output Q2. Thus, there is an underconsumption/underproduction of ### and this leads to the deadweight loss as shown by the shaded area. Hence, there is market failure as societal welfare is not maximized.

Promo Examination Day 1

The moment has reached. I have been awaiting for you for a very very long time. However, it is just like yesterday. Time flies and never waits for you.
I do not have anymore comments.

This morning I was visualising, yeah, I am gonna get a D today. D for GP, but once I take a look of the essay questions, I was like?? OMG, what are these questions? How am I going to answer that? Taking the advice of my GP tutor, Ms. Claire Tan, pick the easier question if you can not write well. Of course that is true, but in the end, I still do not know how to write...

Perhaps I should have taken the last question, it is about whether forgetting the past, and focus on the present will bring good. Not sure what it is, but could have done that. Anyway, feel that I have screwed that essay paper up.

Anyway, during the 20 minutes break, okay... since you can't do this paper well, you will need to excel your comprehension paper. So, I did the comprehension paper with full of confidence. But, gradually my confidence level dropped, words are difficult to paraphrase, wasting lots of my time.

The only greatest relieve is that the vocab qn, i am happy to say that I will get 2/5 correct. I even answer "proclivity" for "propensity". A cheemer word. Then, i got "comfort" for "solace". Another thing that made me happy was, in the passage i found the word "reticence", haha... I learnt that word last week.

Even though, I think that I may not get what I want, and might not even get a sub pass. I will just forget about it, the past is the past, and i can only focus on the future, just do exceedingly well for other subjects and I will be perfectly safe.

=) Do not worry my friends, I am not emo... I am always happy.
I am so looking forward towards the Economics Paper.!!

Wish me Luck!!

Today a lucky day, received a forwarded message from a long lost "sister", lol, lost her contact number, and she do not often go online, but I doubt she would not reply my email....

Met my best primary school and high school pal on msn today, he went to australia, and for a very very long time, we have not been contacting. Very happy, of course this has a positive connotation.

I think I will have the luck!

Elasticity Concept

Price Elasticity of Demand (PED) is the measure of the degree of responsiveness of a good or service to changes of its own price, ceteris paribus. It measures the extent of the shift of the demand curve as the price of the good changes. PED is the percentage change of the quantity demanded divided by the percentage change of the price.

PED is always have a negative value, this is because of the law of demand which states that an inverse relationship exist between the price and the quantity demanded of the good. When |PED|<1, the demand for the good is price inelastic. Hence, a change in price would lead to a less than proportionate increase in the quantity demanded for the good. When |PED|>1, the demand for the good is price elastic, a change in the price of the good would results in a more that proportionate change in the quantity demanded for the good.

The determinants for the price elasticity of demand are the time period, the number of substitutes, the proportion of income spent on the good, Addiction or habit, the nature of the good. For instance, when the there is a great number of substitutes for the good, the demand for the good would be price elastic, hence by decreasing its price, it would result in a more that proportionate change in quantity demanded.

PED is useful in explaining the pricing policy that an entrepreneurship should adopt. This is because when the demand for the good is price inelastic, increasing the price of the good would lead to a less than proportionate change in the quantity demanded, whereas when the demand for the good is price elastic, by decreasing its price, it would lead to a more than proportionate change in the quantity demanded. Therefore, on both situations, the entrepreneur would be able to earn more revenue.

However, there are some limitations of the PED concept as it does not depict what is the profit the entrepreneur is experiencing. It only helps to maximise sales and revenue.

Income elasticity of demand (YED) is the measure of the degree of responsiveness of the change in quantity demanded for the good to changes of the consumers' income level, ceteris paribus. It measures the extent of the shift of the demand curve as the income of the consumers changes. YED is calculated by the percentage change of the quantity demanded divided by the percentage change of the income level.

YED can be positive or negative depending on the nature of the good. When |YED|<1, the demand for the good is income inelastic, a change in income level would result in a less than proportionate change in quantity demanded for the good. When |YED|> 1, the demand for the good is income elastic, a change in income would lead to a more than proportionate change in the quantity demanded.

The determinants of YED are the level of consumer income and the nature of good. For instance, when there is increasing affluence in a country, this would mean a higher income level for the consumers, therefore the demand for normal goods would increase, however the demand of inferior goods would decrease. However, this does not always apply as for every social class, a normal good might be considered as an inferior good for a rich person, an inferior good might also be deemed as a luxury good for the impoverished people.

YED is useful in explaining and determining the output levels of each the good. When there is an economic boom, the firms would release new products as the consumers would have larger buying power, however when there is an economic recession, the firm would provide no frills and less-cost products to suit the income levels of consumers.

However, the YED is not entirely useful, this is because it is assumed ceteris paribus, where it measures that point of time and does not reflect the constantly varying elasticities, hence it is not an accurate representation of the elasticity concept.

The Universe

The Universe was created billions of years when we humans do not even exist. Have you ever wondered how the world is created? Why are we here? Isn't it magical and fictional that we originate out of nothing? There are many questions that we could not answer, is there god or is it purely science? Therefore, I would like to clear you doubts and propose this hypothesis of how the universe is formed. To me, this might be logical, but it must be tested out. Here we go!

'''The Big Bang'''

As we know, the world was created by the big bang. But how? Is there an explanation? Yes, there is. Recently, scientists are trying to recreate the big bang and thus create a new universe. Do you get the idea? A universe which are formed by the various milky way and solar system. Can you imagine the world is starting from ice age? A totally new universe is actually happening in the newly created universe. Sooner or later, after billion of years, wouldn't it become what we will be in this state? Mutations from animals to mammals to homosapiens? We originate from that, aren't we? Therefore, according to the hypothesis, the scientist are actually creating a world, playing "god"??

'''Think out of the Box'''

If a universe is totally created after the experiment, and another earth is formed. A new life was created from energy. Now, imagine that this really works, then think back to like 100 billions of years ago, when our world was created by the big bang. Do you think that is it by chance that our world is created by chance without any factors affecting it? Would there be a chance of something even bigger than us, something that we never thought of before? Maybe from the fairytale, Jack and the Beansprout when he met giants larger the size than them.


Do you get what I mean? What I really mean is that do you think that our universe was created by a scientist from the universe even larger than us. We were just merely an experiment of the scientist who just wants to recreate the universe. Think further back, it would eventually come into a vicious cycle, happening and happening again. So, where does it starts? Who knows? Again, this would eventually lead to the real question where people are still investigating us.


In the other universe, the technology would be definitely be more advanced than us. I also think that they would experience the same with us, in terms of scientific reasoning, however their method of calculation and language might be totally alien to us. Different minds work in different way. However, the logic remains the same. The figures might be different, but relatively similar.


Isn't this universe so interesting? Is the god that everyone talks about is the scientist who created the bigbang? Are we just being manipulated in this small little universe. Will the end of the world caused by the destruction the universe by the creator of the universe?


This remains a mystery. But I think that someone would figure out some day.


'''Acknowledgement'''

Thank you my friends and people who view this article.
I hope that my grammar do not suck. Hope you can understand what am I writing.
Just writing the impossible.

Copyrighted 2008 (C) Cheam Jia Jun

3 DAYS

"Do you realised it is only 3 more days?"
"Yeah I Do"
"Are you prepared?"
"Uhm partially??"
"Good Luck"

I remembered I was enthusiastic about mugging early when it was like 1 month before the date of promos. But yet, I hardly made any progress, what is the reason? The reason is because I have so many other commitments to complete. Homework... ILP.... Project Work, why must these elements impede my studying?

All I hope for now is that, I can retain my scholarship. It is embarassing to fail... I must not. I hope I can get my A for both Chemistry.

Is it really very important? Not really...
I do not know.
I am confused.
Does a great job always accompanied by great scores?

Famous Scientist and Entrepreneurs are not.
Why worry?

Seriously, don't know.

WOW!!

Have kinda long day!!

Firstly, chemistry lesson. I found out that I don't really know my chemistry well. Need to work hard, do more exercises. Remember I am going to get an A.

PE Lesson.. Of course damn fun. Very long never play basketball already. Maybe had improved a little, but still not up to standard. Wow, everyone seems to be good too.

GP - Learned some words!! Reticent and Taciturn!! It perfectly describes me. hehe..

Thats all, quite slack lar... But anyway, I mugged from then to around 7pm... WOW... That was really... *speechless*

Okay, people stop telling me to rest and bla bla bla... i need to do well here.!! It is my choice. Drank coffee around 4pm to relieve my frustration of not able to do the questions.

"It is My Onus to do well in Promo Examination, it is important to myself." I can't just let everything be not okay...

People lend me exercises please. Help me too!!

Thanks Calvin Sim for enlightening me today a lot!! U R IMBA!!

I hope people can ask more questions, so when i answer i am also learning.

1 more week

It is 1 week left for Promotional Examination.
It is yet so near and so far.
I need to really revise everything.
Chemistry and Mathematics must be my Savior.
I can't afford to lose.

I do not care the consequences.
I would not be affected directly.
Just that it affects me when other people are affected.
I will do what I can.

Anyway, today is Friday. A long long long day for everyone.
Had my chemistry SPA and chemistry class test.
I think I have done quite moderately fine.
But can do better if I had practice more.

No CT Session!! Spent the whole CT session to complete my Maths Holiday Package.
Sien..... Then went for Mock Promotional Examination.
IT is VERY DIFFICULT.
IMPLYING: You had not study Math, you gotta buck up!!

I hope everything would be fine.
Looking forward for the end of promos where I can really distress.
WOWOW... That is way to far ahead. I gotta stay focus.

All the best.!!! JJ

WOW... LESSON LEARNT?

Let P(n) be the proposition of Un = something
Why would I want to think is so sophisticated?
Doing extra steps that will not reach to the correct answer.
I spent 20 minutes doing question 1 part 1. LOL...
In the end, just got four marks.

So, Jiajun?

Have you learn any lesson?

Unfortunately, yep!

"Never think that all question are difficult and complicated."

"Do it as it is.."

(:

I am so STUPID complicated minded.

Pain

OMG... my stomach is freaking pain.....
It is been hurting for the whole day, especially now.
Luckily it wasn't that pain during my biology spa....

ouch...what to do...i need to mug....
need to go to the toilet soon.
i bet is the food which i ate last night...

Macdonalds!!..... SIENZZ....
Eat then sleep....
serve me right!!!

:)

Tommorow got Bio SPA. I hope can do it well. :)
Wednesday have Chemistry class test from the topic of energetics onwards.. still need to mug reaction kinetics and chemical equilibirum.
Thursday got Maths class test, sequence and series and functions, need to mug liao, friday got chem SPA, i think it wall be very easy... :P After CT session got maths mock PROMOS... >.<

I will jiayou for my promos...
Workhard is one thing, results is one thing.

"Hard work does not necessarily comes along with results."

My mum always says: "Do your best then can already."
How would I know whether I had did my best.??

Maths

Maths!!!

I can't do Sequence and Series Supplementary Exercise Question 2.... :/

Playing The Game

Life is a game with a glorious prize,
If we can only play it right.
It is give and take, build and break,
And often it ends in a fight;
But he surely wins who honestly tries
(Regardless of wealth or fame),

He can never despair who plays it fair -
How are you playing the game?

Do you wilt and whine, if you fail to win
In the manner you think your due?
Do you sneer at the man in case that he can
And does, do better than you?
Do you take your rebuffs with a knowing grin?
Do you laugh tho' you pull up lame?

Does your faith hold true when the whole world's blue?
How are you playing the game?

Get into the thick of it - wade in, boys!
Whatever your cherished goal;
Brace up your will till your pulses thrill,
And you dare - to your very soul!
Do something more than make a noise;
Let your purpose leap into flame

As you plunge with a cry, "I shall do or die,"
Then you will be playing the game.

:P :P

:P:P:P:P:P:P
Have been mugging for quite some time. Need to rest...
:(

Prepare for the trouble on term 4 week 1
Many stuffs to do.... :S

Jia YOU!!!

:D